1. Introduction
Infective endocarditis (IE) is an infection of the endocardial surface of the heart, which may include one or more heart valves, the mural endocardium, or a septal defect. We distinguish between native valve infective endocarditis and prosthetic valve endocarditis, pacemaker infective endocarditis, and infective endocarditis on the right side of the heart. It is a serious condition that can cause significant morbidity and mortality. Despite improvement in diagnostic methods and outcomes, infective endocarditis remains a life-threatening disease with high in-hospital mortality. However, infective endocarditis accounts for a high percentage of all heart disease-related deaths in many studies published in the United States and Europe on cardiac and cause of death statistics, with mortality rates not seeming to decrease over time. There were significant developments in the understanding of infective endocarditis during the 19th and the 20th century, first with the recognition of the role of microorganisms causing infective endocarditis and with the advent of modern microbiology and guidelines for the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Echocardiography, which is an essential diagnostic tool in infective endocarditis, became commonly used only from the 1960s but has been rapidly evolving to provide increasingly accurate diagnosis of infective endocarditis and its complications. Finally, the incidence of infective endocarditis has been increasing in the past decades, most studies report an increase in older patients and finding Staphylococcus aureus to be the most common cause of infective endocarditis.
1.1 Definition and Overview
Definite emphasis on the big picture, the summary of the whole essay, states the important main idea of the whole content of this section. The main idea is as follows: there are three things I need to explain and cover in this section. And also, the reason why the definition and overview is important is because the author uses this as a springboard to the following sections to introduce what’s going to be talked about afterwards, to introduce the theories that others have, that we would have discussed in the next sections. That’s why the definition and overview is important and makes sense. And also, the author in this paragraph makes a transition from a general overview of the topic of the review to the specific aim of this section. And later, after we finish the definition, the author would repeat and tell the reader what was just covered, and transition into the next session. And I’ll definitely emphasize that we connect the dots and let the reader know what the overview for this section of the definition is and give them the definition of infective endocarditis. And the definition of infective endocarditis is, it refers to an infection of the endocardium, the inner lining of the heart, commonly involving the heart valves. And next, over the course of the years, the definition has been supplemented by the modified Duke’s criteria, which includes a combination of pathological signs and clinical findings to establish a diagnosis.
1.2 Historical Background
Since ancient times, medical practitioners observed that some patients with a chronic wasting illness developed petechiae. Sir William Osler, widely referred to as the father of modern medicine, has been credited with first describing the classic clinical presentation of subacute bacterial endocarditis in 1885. However, the history of infective endocarditis, which is a synonymous term of the disease Osler described, dates back further. In 1329, Ibn al-Nafis, an Arab physician, provided the initial description that correlated human dissection findings with the postmortem evidence of cor triatriatum sinister. The condition was later known as the “Sheikh disease” and Nafis’ cited findings adapted in some Western medical literature in reference to the phenomenon in the following centuries. Andrea Marzari, an Italian doctor, was the first to perform a successful cardiac surgery on a patient with endocarditis. In 1872, he pursued a surgical approach including division of style and valvular leaflets with patience, resulting in relief of ailment up to 3 months. This unique attempt at early valvular surgery with hypothesis that the absence of one particular leaflet would release the built-up blood flow and provide resistance was revealed in the renowned “Napoleon’s buttons” by Dr. Barbara J. Niss. Dr. Emanuel Libman and his protegees, Dr. Leslie Abramowits and Dr. Joseph Weinstein, perfected the technique of culturing for the diagnosis of subacute bacterial endocarditis from blood in 1909. Dr. Libman was a prolific writer and has been consulted in many edition of Osler’s textbook for guidance on infectious endocarditis and other medical conditions. As a result of the pioneering work of those physicians, the culture technique emerged as the golden standard for laboratory diagnosis till Schick and his associated embraced the usage of antistreptolysin in the late 1930s. Surprised patient and their relative would ask why modern physician performed all these procedures and the ground of a “minor incision” on the chest. Well, the answer lied in a ground-breaking event, the first successful cardiopulmonary bypass perfusion by John Heysham Gibbon, Jr. in Thomas Jefferson University Hospital on 6 May 1953. His associate, the tireless Dr. Lenly Steven Lillehet, completed the cases that followed. Dr. Lillehet’s effort reaching an impressive 72 hours on bypass was universally acclaimed in the surgical circle and his record still stood unrivalled until a better technology eclipsed the traditional model. The establishment of Cardiac Surgery Unit, as well as subsequent surgical advancement, allows removal of many tumors, obliteration of multiple septal defects, valvular leaflets repair and successful outcome of the first staged correction for tetralogy of Fallot ever reported. It was through identification of hemolytic pathogens Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster in 1962 that set up a vital platform for studying and researching the pathogenic effect of streptococcal bacteria. With referable genetic similarity to higher species including Homo sapiens, the experimentation and correlation constitute the initial necessary step in a greater understanding when subsequent researches could be conducted on larger mammals like guinea pigs and eventually in human. Creaton et al. published a groundbreaking result in the genome size and phylogenetic distribution of species in Streptococcus bovis group, reporting the association of S. gallolyticus with numerous gastro-intestinal maladies and sporadic endocarditis in the developed country in 2012. As the history chronicles major breakthrough and advances in our understanding of the modern endocarditis. These legendary cases, techniques invented and long-withstanding aliases used to described infective endocarditis serve as solid reminders to our epic but perpetual struggle against one of the most feared heart condition known to mankind.
1.3 Incidence and Prevalence
It appears from the literature that incidence and prevalence vary with patient population and geographical region. For example, there is a lower incidence of infective endocarditis caused by Chlamydia in the UK and Europe compared to the USA. This could be due to differences in climate and therefore the prevalence of the arthropod vectors of Chlamydia.
The incidence and prevalence of various infective agents causing endocarditis also differ. For example, a study in Olmsted County, Minnesota (1975-1984) showed that there were only 1.4 episodes of Q fever endocarditis per 100,000 person-years compared to 4 for Staphylococcus aureus and 1.7 for viridans streptococcal infection. However, this was in contrast to the nationwide French survey, which found a prevalence of only 2% for prosthetic valve endocarditis but 19% for Q fever endocarditis.
Studies suggest that the incidence of infective endocarditis is increasing. The recent French study showed an increase of 33% between 1991 and 1999 compared to the previous decade. This is thought to be related to an aging population, the increasing numbers of prosthetic valves, and better ascertainment due to improved availability of echocardiography.
In a study of 468 patients in New York state between 1998 and 2000, the annual incidence was 15 cases per million population. This is in line with an earlier survey (1969-1983) in North America, which suggested an incidence of 10 cases per million.
In a French study of 1,135 patients with infective endocarditis during the 1980s, the overall annual incidence of infective endocarditis was 33 cases per million population. This increased with age to 60 cases per million population in those aged 60 to 70 years and 120 cases per million in those over 70. The annual incidence among those with rheumatic heart disease or a prosthetic heart valve was much higher at 377 and 553 cases per million population. The male to female ratio in this study was 1.6 to 1; however, there were no cases in women under 20 or over 70.
The true incidence and prevalence of infective endocarditis have proven difficult to ascertain and are subject to much geographical and temporal variation, especially with the advent of new diagnostic and echocardiographic techniques. However, population-based studies have helped to define this more clearly.
2. Etiology and Pathogenesis
2.1 Microorganisms Involved
2.2 Risk Factors
2.3 Pathophysiology
3. Clinical Presentation
3.1 Signs and Symptoms
3.2 Complications
3.3 Diagnostic Criteria
4. Imaging and Diagnostic Techniques
4.1 Echocardiography
4.2 Blood Cultures
4.3 Other Diagnostic Modalities
5. Treatment Approaches
5.1 Antibiotic Therapy
5.2 Surgical Intervention
5.3 Prophylaxis
6. Prognosis and Outcomes
6.1 Mortality Rates
6.2 Long-Term Complications
6.3 Factors Influencing Prognosis
7. Prevention Strategies
7.1 Education and Awareness
7.2 Dental Prophylaxis Guidelines
7.3 Intravenous Drug Use Prevention
8. Research and Advances
8.1 Current Studies and Trials
8.2 Emerging Therapies
8.3 Future Directions

QUESTION
discuss the accounting-for-inventory transactions of merchandising companies, the two formats of preparing the income statement, and how to evaluate the profitability of a merchandising company. We will also discuss how companies determine the year-end inventory value and cost of goods sold using one of the cost-flow assumptions. Finally, we will examine the impact of choosing a certain cost-flow assumption on the tax liability and other financial statement numbers of a company.
Let’s begin with this question: How is the income statement of a merchandising company different from that of a service company?

ANSWER
1. Income Statement Differences between Merchandising and Service Companies
The income statement of a service company and a merchandising company differs in terms of the amount of reported revenues and the presentation of cost of goods sold and gross profit. In a service company, the revenue section of the income statement looks simple. Revenues are reported when services performed, not when cash is received. The statement shows the total revenues generated by the company during the reporting period. It does not record any revenues for future services that have been paid in advance. The unearned revenue is recorded in the balance sheet as a liability. In contrast, a merchandising company uses a more complex revenue recognition principle. The income statement should show the sales revenue for the period and the gross profit of the company. Sales revenue represents the actual invoiced sales to customers, not the purchase revenue as recognized in the company’s books. However, as for services, revenue is recognized when goods are delivered to the buyers, not when the cash is received. The cost of goods sold is the expenses that a merchandising company has paid to produce the goods that have been sold during the reporting period. The calculation of cost of goods sold is not necessary in a service company’s income statement. Besides, it is also different from the expense of purchase that has been paid during the period. This is because the cost of goods sold should be recorded as expenses in the same period as sales which have been generated from the sold goods. Unlike in a merchandising company, the statement will only show the net sales after deducing the cost of goods sold. It does not show the total revenues from goods purchased by the company. However, the revenue section will show total revenues overall, including for any future services that have been paid in advance. In contrast to a service company, the income statement of a merchandising company should also present the cost of goods sold and gross profit. The cost of goods sold is the expenses that a merchandising company has paid to produce the goods that have been sold during the reporting period. The calculation of cost of goods sold is not necessary in a service company’s income statement.
1.1. Revenue Recognition in Merchandising Companies
The title to the inventory passed from the seller to Revcon Inc. at the shipping point. The goods will be shipped FOB (Free On Board) shipping point. When the inventory arrives at Revcon Inc.’s location, the prepaid freight will be reclassified to the income statement and Revcon Inc. will record the delivery costs as a part of the cost of the goods sold.
Illustration 1: Revcon Inc. ordered an inventory costing $4,000 on 11/20/X1 and received the inventory on 12/3/X1. The seller paid for the shipping cost of $200.35.
Revenue is earned when the seller transfers the promised goods or services to the customer, regardless of when the customer pays for the product. In a merchandising company, revenue is earned through the sale of merchandise. Revenue from the sale of inventory is recorded in the income statement when title to the goods passes from the seller to the buyer. Goods can be sold under different contractual terms. If the seller explicitly agrees to pay for the transportation of the inventory to the buyer, then the seller has title to the goods until the inventory reaches the buyer. If the merchandise is shipped FOB (Free On Board) shipping point, then the title to the goods passes to the buyer at the shipping point. In this case, the seller will record the sales revenue and the inventory will be reduced when the goods have been loaded onto the shipping vehicle. The buyer is responsible for the transportation costs and the seller will not record additional costs associated with delivering the inventory to the buyer. If the merchandise is shipped FOB destination, then the title to the goods passes to the buyer when the goods reach the buyer’s place of business. In this case, the seller will record the sales revenue and reduce the inventory when the merchandise has been delivered to the customer’s location. The seller is responsible for the additional costs of shipping the merchandise to the buyer, and therefore the seller will record the costs associated with the transportation as freight-out expenses on the income statement. On the contrary, if the seller agrees to pay for the additional transportation costs, then the buyer will not take title to the goods until the merchandise is delivered. If the merchandise is shipped FOB destination, then the revenue from the sales transaction and the related cost in the amount of the prepaid freight will be recorded as a deferred cost on the balance sheet. The seller will record the freight cost as a part of the cost of the goods sold when the inventory is delivered to the customer’s location. As a result, the merchandise appears in the inventory and the seller consumes the freight cost, at which point the deferred cost of the prepaid freight will be reclassified from the balance sheet to the income statement.
Revenue from sales transactions
1.2. Cost of Goods Sold Calculation in Merchandising Companies
The cost of goods sold calculation in the income statement in merchandising companies is a primary difference from the income statement in service companies. In service companies, there is no requirement for tracking the inventory and the cost of goods sold. Instead, the cost of goods sold in merchandising companies is like the direct labor and manufacturing overhead in manufacturing companies: it is associated with the inventory that has been sold. In another word, cost of goods sold represents the expense of the goods that have been sold during the period. The calculation of cost of goods sold is shown as follows: begin with the beginning inventory, add the purchase, and then subtract the ending inventory. The beginning and the ending inventory are also reported in the balance sheet at the end of the year. However, the income statement is only for each period. When the goods are sold, the cost of those goods will be transferred from inventory to the cost of goods sold. From the formula of calculating the cost of goods sold, it is understood that cost of goods sold usually involves three accounts: the inventory, the purchase, and the cost of goods sold itself which is shown in the income statement. Since the merchandise inventory in the balance sheet has to be measured at the end of the month every time, the cost of goods sold should be periodically calculated and matching with the actual cost of the goods which are in the inventory. You could see how important the time and the effort of keeping track of the inventory, buying and selling the goods are to the manager. All these activities will be reflected in the income statement and the balance sheet that provide useful information for decision making, performance evaluation, and comparison with similar companies. According to the document, there are two formats of preparing the income statement in merchandising companies, which are single-step income statement and multiple-step income statement. The single-step income statement is simple and uses only one step to calculate the net income. On the other hand, the multiple-step income statement provides more detailed information for the users, like the gross profit and the total operational expenses. And it also provides a subcategory for each kind of operational expense.
1.3. Gross Profit Calculation in Merchandising Companies
The formula to calculate gross profit is: Gross Profit = Net Sales – Cost of Goods Sold (COGS). It is important to note that COGS is the cost of inventory at the beginning of the accounting period, plus the cost of purchases during the accounting period, minus the cost of inventory at the end of the accounting period. Inventories usually involve various cost factors due to inflation or other price level changes. So, the management has to choose a cost flow assumption from different inventory valuation methods. There are three most widely used inventory valuation methods under a perpetual inventory system, which are: First-In, First-Out (FIFO); Last-In, First-Out (LIFO) and Weighted Average Cost. These methods will lead to different allocation of cost of goods sold between consecutive accounting periods and therefore it will lead to different figures of gross profit and eventually different tax liability. On the other hand, under a periodic inventory system, the cost of goods sold and the ending inventory are physically counted and then costed at the end of the accounting period. The value of closing inventory is calculated by: closing inventory = opening inventory + purchase – closing inventory. As a conclusion, the main difference between gross profit margin, operating profit margin and net profit margin is the deduction used in the formula of each margin. Gross profit margin deducts cost of goods sold from net sales, while operating profit margin deducts the total operating expenses from gross profit; and net profit margin deducts all the other expenses (e.g. interest, taxation) from the operating profit. It is important to make an overall efficiency comparison on different profit margins of a particular company, by comparing with the margins growth over different accounting periods and by comparing the margins with the average company margins in the same industry.
2. Two Formats of Preparing the Income Statement
2.1. Single-Step Income Statement Format
2.2. Multiple-Step Income Statement Format
3. Evaluating the Profitability of a Merchandising Company
3.1. Gross Profit Margin Analysis
3.2. Operating Profit Margin Analysis
3.3. Net Profit Margin Analysis
4. Determining Year-End Inventory Value in Merchandising Companies
4.1. Perpetual Inventory System
4.2. Periodic Inventory System
5. Cost of Goods Sold Calculation using Cost-Flow Assumptions
5.1. First-In, First-Out (FIFO) Method
5.2. Last-In, First-Out (LIFO) Method
5.3. Weighted Average Cost Method
6. Impact of Cost-Flow Assumptions on Tax Liability and Financial Statements
6.1. Tax Implications of Different Cost-Flow Assumptions
6.2. Effect on Inventory Valuation
6.3. Impact on Profitability Measures

question
Bullying prevention is a growing research field that investigates the complexities and consequences of bullying.  There is also a complex relationship between bullying and suicide.  
Visit http://www.stopbullying.gov/resources/index.html and identify resources for preventing bullying
and assisting children who have been bullied.
Answer
Bullying Prevention and Assistance for Bullied Children
1. Introduction
First and foremost, the text could persuade people to stand against bullying efficiently. To fulfill this purpose, the text starts with research that tries to connect to academic and research studies to develop new effective ways for anti-bullying. By implementing this, readers would be convinced that this is the best practice and gives a meaningful impact. Meanwhile, the text then continues to state the significance of the research. After the aim or objective of the research is clearly stated, it is important to continue with the literature review about bullying. Through the literature review, it could help the readers understand more about the topic and justify the hypothesis. The text could provide some supportive statements or evidence from the literature. The next paragraph could talk about the characteristics of the bullies that the research found. In this part, the text needs to elaborate on how the characteristics have been studied. By providing a paragraph to talk about the characteristics of the bullies, the text would not be too focused and describe too much about the positive characteristics of the bullies. The idea of positive characteristics might not be accepted by the majority. When stating the method of the research, the text could provide some ideas and give insight into what type of data has been collected. On the other hand, the text could also provide the tools that have been used for data collection. Last but not least, the text is suggested to have research limitations as well. Researchers need to be honest with the readers that there is no perfect research. Therefore, the author should state the obstacles that have been faced during the research. By providing an honest statement, it could actually lead the readers to know more about the possible challenges that they may face for continuing the research. Also, it further gives room for improvement for the future, i.e. what the researcher could aim and do for the next research.
1.1. Overview of Bullying Prevention Research
As well, the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program is a widely recognized approach to preventing bullying. It is designed for children and youth and involves a combination of school-wide, classroom, individual, and community efforts. It has been found to reduce bullying in schools. In addition, the program provides a focus on creating a positive school climate. Schools and school districts around the country are using the Olweus program and are supplementing it with research-based strategies such as social emotional learning. Social emotional learning is the process through which children and adults understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions. Researchers are discovering the significant impact an emphasis on social emotional learning can make on both school climate and student learning. Such programs provide students with strong, evidence-based social and emotional education and help to facilitate the growth of a more positive school climate where bullying is less and less likely to be present. Clearly, research shows the importance of approaching bullying on different levels, from the individual to the school-wide level, and tailoring strategies to the type of bullying as well as the ages of the youth involved. By continuing to study the countless forms of bullying and the subsequent effects of each kind and by providing educators and parents alike with research-based prevention programs, strategies, and materials, we may be able to weaken the foundation upon which bullying is founded. Although there is no surefire way to prevent bullying, the aim of academic research and the information contained within this resource is to provide a more thorough understanding of the multitude of forms of bullying, and to provide assistance and resources for those who may be affected by such negative behaviors. By exploring research, the underlying causes of a variety of bullying types, and how educators and parents can help to prevent or diminish such behaviors, individuals can develop a strong sense of how bullying negatively affects not only the victim, but also the bully and witnesses to bullying.
1.2. Understanding the Complexities of Bullying
Firstly, it is important to recognize the various different forms of bullying. These can be physical, verbal, relational, and sometimes it can even encompass that of sexual harassment. For example, in some instances, the very friends that a person had turned against them, which is a form of social aggression that sometimes can be even more devastating than just the individual direct bullying itself. Another complexity is that statistics themselves are not always clear as to the true extent or definition of bullying. It is often debated as to whether the bullies themselves are suffering from an underlying psychological problem, or whether they are in fact fully aware of their actions. This is something we explore later within this literature. One key element identified by many is that in order to be able to tackle the issue of bullying, it is essential to understand the different and complex behaviors that are often associated with these types of repeated aggression. For example, research commissioned by the Department for Education and Skills (2009) identified and recognized that there are many different ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors that are associated within cases of bullying. Ergo, what may start out as a learned cycle of repeat type of aggression can often become a dominant pattern of negative behavior. This can become deeply ingrained over prolonged periods, especially if the bullying tactics are tolerated or remain unanswered. At the core of the underlying issues, it is identified by the research that the individual being the target of the bullying is more often than not at risk from not only ‘psychosocial’ problems such as low self-esteem, or that of an inability to protect themselves effectively from the aggression, but it is known now that academic studies are also a big potential target for the bullies as well.
1.3. Consequences of Bullying
One of the most common and dangerous effects of bullying is the development of low self-esteem. Self-esteem is how a person feels about his or herself and can greatly influence how a person views the world and their role in the world. If a person feels badly about themselves, they are less likely to take productive action towards their goals and more likely to feel helpless and depressed. Additionally, bullying can have long-term effects on a person’s life. The US Department of Health and Human Services reports that children who are bullied are more likely to develop depression and anxiety and grow up to be more susceptible to mental health problems, job insecurity, and even homelessness in their adult years. There have also been multiple studies that have suggested that children who are bullied are more likely to abuse alcohol and other drugs in adolescence and as adults. Bullying has even been linked to an increase in the likelihood of a person committing criminal acts. It has been suggested that the experience of being bullied, and the resulting shame, isolation, and quiet rage, may be contributing factors behind the decision to commit criminal acts. Some of the worst effects of bullying occur when the victim takes his or her own life. When a person is constantly told that they are ugly, not good enough, or that they should kill themselves, the simple words become a reality to the victim and he or she will take their own life. Victims of bullying and cyberbullying are between 2 to 9 times more likely to consider committing suicide, as cited by the US Department of Health and Human Services. There are many different LGBTQ youth support groups and other anti-bullying organizations throughout the country that help provide a safe haven for victims of bullying. They often help children who are being bullied learn to defend themselves, promote greater awareness in schools and communities, and provide education on the patterns that bullying can take. Research has shown that young people who are actively engaged in implementing programs and strategies that foster positive youth-adult relationships and that help to develop conflict resolution and leadership skills are much less likely to problem-bully or to have been seriously victimized themselves. Such programs create an environment where bullying, particularly if it is more subtle or persistent, has a much smaller chance to take root.
2. Bullying and Suicide
2.1. Exploring the Relationship between Bullying and Suicide
2.2. Identifying Risk Factors for Suicide in Bullied Individuals
2.3. Strategies for Suicide Prevention among Bullied Individuals
3. Resources for Preventing Bullying
3.1. StopBullying.gov – Overview and Purpose
3.2. Educational Programs for Bullying Prevention
3.3. Training Materials for Teachers and Parents
3.4. Research-Based Strategies for Bullying Prevention
4. Resources for Assisting Bullied Children
4.1. Supportive Organizations for Bullied Children
4.2. Counseling and Therapy Services
4.3. Building Resilience in Bullied Individuals
4.4. Legal Protection and Advocacy for Bullied Children
5. Conclusion

Question
The Challenges of Managing Information Systems: Explore the challenges of managing information systems. Discuss issues such as system integration, data quality, and user adoption.

Answer
1. System Integration
System integration is the process of connecting different sub-systems within the whole system in order to maximize functionality of the system. By working on their coordination of each sub-system, they can be developed with maintaining their autonomy but also can be integrated to work together to serve the organization’s overall purpose. The goal of system integration is to not just share data, but to enhance the integrated organization’s performance. An important benefit of system integration is the ability for different systems to easily access and exchange information. The main problem faced is ensuring that the relevant data can be available on the new platform once it has been accessed. Data integration is a precursor to system integration; system integration is broader in scope in comparison to data integration. Integration of a new system to systems already present in the organization has caused a greater need for ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) tools to migrate data, as well as a data warehouse environment to facilitate the necessary data transformation and provide the integrated system with visible access to the data it requires. In the evolution of IS/IT technologies, the integration method has evolved from old custom coding methods to the more reusable option by using middleware technology. It has been another challenge to ensure different systems and middleware platforms can be integrated. System integration is an essential phase in more complex automation systems. Failure to integrate can cause delays in development or unnecessary additional costs.
1.1. Interoperability challenges
This often results in a situation where point-to-point integration is used with a custom-built interface, but this approach has been heavily criticized as costly and high in coupling between the integrated systems.
The most pressing interoperability issue lies with newer systems being deployed, as these will eventually become the legacy systems of the future, and so businesses will want to leverage the existing IT infrastructure. This creates a need for temporal interoperability, the ability for systems to exchange data and use the services of other systems, but in a way that can cope with future changes to those systems or deactivation of the system.
It has been suggested that due to the high level of complexity present in modern systems, achieving fully interoperable systems may, in fact, be infeasible. This is due to the difficulty of modeling and creating a standard for every automated business process that can be implemented by different systems but still allow meaningful data interchange.
Interoperability, the ability of a system to share data and services with other systems, is the crux of system integration. An absence of widely accepted system-interconnection standards and the related trust between organizations has made achieving system interoperability very difficult. This, in turn, has led to a situation where systems are very brittle and exhibit a low grace of failure. As a result, the cost of ownership of the system increases as organizations find themselves maintaining and remediating the same issues.
1.2. Legacy system compatibility
Legacy systems refer to systems that are considered outdated or obsolete. These systems are often proprietary and require just a few people to maintain them. Other times they are highly customized to perform specific functions for a particular business or organization. Legacy systems may not be replaced simply because they are critical to the business and the cost of replacement is too high to justify the implementation of a new system. Therefore, in these cases, the new system must be compatible with the old. This can pose major problems for both the company implementing the new system and the vendor providing it.
A) When firms attempt to integrate their systems with those of business partners or change to new software packages, they often find that the new applications either do not work together, or the business partners’ systems cannot operate with the latest technologies. The result is that firms are forced to maintain complex, costly, and extremely difficult to maintain links between systems. For example, the Australian Wool Exchange invested $8.5m for an online transaction processing system to handle the buying and selling of wool. This was to replace a system that had been in place for 40 years. However, wool brokers were unwilling to invest in the technology required to move the data from their systems to the exchange. This led to the abandoning of the project and a return to a manual process. This is a common situation for businesses. Almost every system in existence is connected with another in some form. Therefore, when a new system is implemented, it must work in tandem with the old system or the system being replaced.
1.3. Data migration issues
Major integration and development projects bring a high probability of data migration because most systems being integrated or replaced will need to maintain some level of data accessibility and functionality. However, data migration itself is one of the most challenging and critical components of the integration process. Rapid changes in technology and data structure make migration a difficult task, and failure in migration can lead to project delays or, in extreme cases, complete project failure. Data migration can most easily be described as moving data to one or more systems in an effective and efficient way in order to access and use that data when it is in the new location. It is often best to view migration as a process, rather than a single event. Usually, the process is automated, but it can involve manual steps. Direct data transfer is often the most appealing option, but there may be a need to modify data in order to match the new system’s requirements. This is a risky scenario, as altering data can lead to integrity loss, and if transfer methods are not well considered prior to the actual transfer, it can lead to much time and expense on recoding and rerunning the transfer process. If the data has a complex modern structure, it may be more efficient to rebuild the data in the new system, either by manual entry or with some form of data capture and processing. Many organizations underestimate the complexities involved in migrating data, and this is reflected in a general lack of knowledge in the area, and subsequently, data migration project failures are a common occurrence.
2. Data Quality
2.1. Accuracy and completeness
2.2. Consistency and reliability
2.3. Data governance and stewardship
2.4. Data security and privacy
3. User Adoption
3.1. Resistance to change
3.2. Training and education
3.3. User interface design
4. Information System Performance
4.1. Scalability and capacity planning
4.2. System reliability and uptime
4.3. Response time optimization
5. Information System Governance
5.1. IT strategy alignment
5.2. Risk management and compliance
5.3. IT project prioritization
6. Information System Security
6.1. Cybersecurity threats
6.2. Access control and authentication
6.3. Incident response and recovery
7. Information System Analytics
7.1. Data mining and analysis
7.2. Business intelligence tools
7.3. Predictive analytics
8. Cloud Computing and Information Systems
8.1. Cloud adoption challenges
8.2. Data sovereignty and privacy concerns
8.3. Vendor lock-in risks
9. Mobile Technologies and Information Systems
9.1. Mobile app development
9.2. Device compatibility and fragmentation
9.3. Mobile security and data protection
10. Artificial Intelligence and Information Systems
10.1. Machine learning applications
10.2. Ethical considerations
10.3. Human-AI collaboration
11. Emerging Technologies in Information Systems
11.1. Internet of Things (IoT)
11.2. Blockchain technology
11.3. Augmented and virtual reality
12. Big Data Management
12.1. Data storage and retrieval
12.2. Data processing and analysis
12.3. Data privacy and compliance
13. Knowledge Management Systems
13.1. Knowledge capture and sharing
13.2. Expertise location and retrieval
13.3. Collaboration and social networks
14. Change Management in Information Systems
14.1. Organizational change readiness
14.2. Communication and stakeholder engagement
14.3. Change implementation and evaluation
15. Project Management for Information Systems
15.1. Scope definition and requirements gathering
15.2. Resource allocation and scheduling
15.3. Risk identification and mitigation
16. IT Service Management
16.1. Incident and problem management
16.2. Service level agreements (SLAs)
16.3. Continual service improvement
17. Data Warehousing and Business Intelligence
17.1. Data extraction and transformation
17.2. Data modeling and schema design
17.3. Report generation and data visualization
18. System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
18.1. Requirements analysis and specification
18.2. System design and prototyping
18.3. Testing and quality assurance
19. IT Governance Frameworks
19.1. COBIT (Control Objectives for Information and Related Technologies)
19.2. ITIL (Information Technology Infrastructure Library)
19.3. ISO 27001 (Information Security Management System)
20. Business Process Management and Information Systems
20.1. Process modeling and optimization
20.2. Workflow automation and orchestration
20.3. Performance monitoring and improvement